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Umar ibn al-Khattab (; ), also spelled Omar, was the second Rashidun caliph, ruling from August 634 until his assassination in 644. He succeeded Abu Bakr () and is regarded as a senior companion and father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.
Initially, Umar opposed Muhammad, who was his distant kinsman. However, after converting to Islam in 616, he became the first Muslims to openly pray at the Kaaba. He participated in nearly all of Muhammad’s battles and expeditions, and Muhammad conferred upon him the title al-Fārūq ("the Distinguisher") for his sound judgement. After Muhammad’s death in June 632, Umar pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr as the first caliph and served as his chief adviser. In 634, shortly before his death, Abu Bakr nominated Umar as his successor.
During Umar’s reign, the caliphate expanded at an unprecedented rate, conquering the Sasanian Empire and more than two-thirds of the Byzantine Empire. His campaigns against the Sasanians resulted in the conquest of Persia within two years (642–644). According to Jewish tradition, Umar lifted the Christianity ban on Jews entering Jerusalem and permitted them to worship there.
Umar was Assassination by the Persian slave Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz in 644.Umar is widely credited with expanding the Islamic world beyond Arabia and introducing the Islamic calendar. Historians generally regard him as one of the most powerful and influential Muslim caliphs in history.Ahmed, Nazeer; Islam in Global History - From the Death of Prophet Muhammad to the First World War, American Institute of Islamic History and Cul, 2001, p. 34 . In Sunni Islamic tradition, he is revered as a just ruler and a paragon of Islamic virtues, with some identifying him as the second greatest of the Sahabah after Abu Bakr. In Twelver Shia Islam tradition, however, he is viewed negatively.
Although literacy was uncommon in pre-Islamic Arab world, Umar learned to read and write during his youth. While not a poet himself, he developed a love for poetry and literature.Haykal, 1944, Chapter 1. In accordance with the traditions of the Quraysh, he was trained in martial arts, horse riding, and wrestling during his adolescence. He was tall, physically powerful and a renowned wrestler.Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, History of the Prophets and Kings He was also recognized as a gifted orator and succeeded his father as an arbitrator among the tribes.Haykal, 1944, Chapter 1, pp. 40–41.
Umar became a merchant and made several journeys to Byzantine Empire and Sassanid Empire territories, where he is said to have met various and analyzed Byzantine and Sasanian societies. As a merchant, he was unsuccessful.Tabqat ibn Sa'ad, Chapter - Umar ibn Khattab. Like others around him, Umar was fond of Alcoholic drink in his pre-Islamic days.Haykal, 1944, Chapter 1, p. 47.
Due to persecution, Muhammad ordered some of his followers to migrate to Abyssinia. When a small group of Muslims migrated, Umar became worried about the future unity of the Quraysh and decided to have Muhammad Assassination.Haykal, 1944, Chapter 1, p. 53.
Nu'aym then told him to inquire about his own house, where his sister, Fatima bint al-Khattab, and his brother-in-law had converted to Islam and were taking lessons from Khabbab ibn al-Aratt. Upon arriving at her house, Umar found Fatima and her husband Saeed bin Zaid (Umar's cousin) reciting the verses of the Quran from Ta-Ha.as-Suyuti, The History of Khalifahs Who Took The Right Way, London, 1995, pp. 107–108. He started quarreling with Saeed and physically attacking him. When his sister came to rescue her husband, he also started arguing with her. Yet still they kept on saying "you may kill us but we will not give up Islam". Sources differ on what happened next: While some say that upon hearing these words, Umar slapped his sister so hard that she fell to the ground, others claim Fatima was merely hit by accident and lost balance when trying to pull Umar off of Saeed. In both cases, however, his sister began to Bleeding from her mouth. Seeing what he had done, Umar calmed down out of guilt and asked Fatima to give him what she was reciting. She replied in the negative and said, "You are unclean, and no unclean person can touch the Scripture". He insisted, but his sister was not prepared to allow him to touch the pages unless he washed his body. Umar at last gave in. He Ghusl and then began to read the verses that were: Verily, I am Allah: there is no God but Me; so serve Me (only), and establish regular prayer for My remembrance (Quran 20:14). He Tears and declared, "Surely this is the word of Allah. I bear witness that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah". On hearing this, Khabbab came out from where he was hiding inside and said: "O, Umar! Glad tidings for you. Yesterday Muhammad prayed to Allah, "O, Allah! Strengthen Islam with either Umar or Abu Jahl, whomsoever Thou likest". It seems that his prayer has been answered in your favour."
Umar then went to Muhammad with the same sword he intended to kill him with and accepted Islam in front of him and his companions. Umar was 39 years old when he accepted Islam.Tartib wa Tahthib Kitab Al-Bidaya wa l-Nihaya by ibn Kathir, published by Dar al-Wathan publications, Riyadh Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 1422 Islamic calendar (2002), compiled by Muhammad ibn Shamil as-Sulami, p. 170
According to one account, after his conversion to Islam, Umar openly prayed at the Kaaba as the Quraysh chiefs, Abu Jahl and Abu Sufyan, reportedly watched in anger. This further helped the Muslims to gain confidence in practicing Islam openly. At this stage, Umar even challenged anyone who dared to stop the Muslims from Prayer, although no one dared to interfere with Umar when he was openly praying.
Umar's conversion to Islam granted power to the Muslims and to the Islamic faith in Mecca. It was after this event that Muslims offered prayers openly in Masjid al-Haram for the first time. Abdullah ibn Masud said,
Umar migrated to Medina accompanied by his cousin and brother-in-law Saeed ibn Zaid.
Later in 627, he participated in the Battle of the Trench and also in the Banu Qurayza.Tabqat ibn al-Saad book of Maghazi, p. 62 In 628, Umar witnessed the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. In 628, he fought in the Battle of Khaybar. In 629, Muhammad sent Amr ibn al-As to Zaat-ul-Sallasal, after which Muhammad sent Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah with reinforcements, including Abu Bakr and Umar, whereupon they attacked and defeated the enemy.Sahih-al-Bhukari book of Maghazi, Ghazwa Zaat-ul-Sallasal
In 630, when Muslim armies rushed for the conquest of Mecca, he was part of that army. Later in 630, he fought in the Battle of Hunayn and the Siege of Ta'if. He was part of the Muslim army that contested the Battle of Tabouk under Muhammad's command and he was reported to have given half of his wealth for the preparation of this expedition. He also participated in the farewell Hajj of Muhammad in 632. Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq, Mohammad Allias Aadil, p. 56
Abū Bakr then recited these verses from the Qur'an :
Hearing this, Umar fell on his knees in sorrow and acceptance. Sunni Muslims say that this denial of Muhammad's death was occasioned by his deep love for him.
Wilferd Madelung summarises Umar's contribution:
According to various Twelver Shia sources and Madelung, Umar and Abu Bakr had in effect mounted a political coup against Ali at the Saqifah. According to one version of narrations in primary sources, Umar and Abu Bakr are also said to have used force to try to secure the allegiance from Ali and his party. It has been reported in mainly Persian historical sources written 300 years later, such as in the History of al-Tabari, that after Ali's refusal to pay homage, Abu Bakr sent Umar with an armed contingent to Fatimah's house where Ali and his supporters are said to have gathered. Umar is reported to have warned those in the House that unless Ali succumbed to Abu Bakr, he would set the House on fire and under these circumstances Ali was forced to capitulate. This version of events, fully accepted by Shia scholars, is generally rejected by Sunni scholars who, in view of other reports in their literature, believe that Ali gave an oath of alliance to Abu Bakr without any grievance. But then other Sunni and Shia sources say that Ali did not swear allegiance to Abu Bakr after his election but six months later after the death of his wife Fatimah putting into question al-Tabari's account. Either way the Sunni and the Shia accounts both accept that Ali felt that Abu Bakr should have informed him before going into the meeting with the Ansar and that Ali did swear allegiance to Abu Bakr.
Western scholars tend to agree that Ali believed he had a clear mandate to succeed Muhammad, but offer differing views as to the extent of use of force by Umar in an attempt to intimidate Ali and his supporters. For instance, Madelung discounts the possibility of the use of force and argues that:
According to Tom Holland, Umar's historicity is beyond dispute.
An Armenian bishop writing a decade or so after Qadisiyya describes Umar as a "mighty potentate coordinating the advance of the sons of Ismael from the depths of the desert".Sebeos 139 Tom Holland writes "What added incomparably to his prestige, was that his earth-shaking qualities as a generalissimo were combined with the most distinctive cast of virtues. Rather than ape the manner of a Caesar, as the Ghassanid kings had done, he drew on the example of a quite different kind of Christian. Umar's threadbare robes, his diet of bread, salt and water, and his rejection of worldly riches would have reminded anyone from the desert reaches beyond Palestine of a very particular kind of person. Monks out in the Judaean desert had long been casting themselves as warriors of God. The achievement of Umar was to take such language to a literal and previously unimaginable extreme."
Umar advised Abu Bakr to compile the Quran in the form of a book after 300 huffāẓ (memorizers) of the Quran died in the Battle of Yamamah.
Abu Bakr was aware of Umar's power and ability to succeed him. His was perhaps one of the smoothest transitions of power from one authority to another in the Muslim lands.K. Y. Blankinship, The History of al-Tabari, vol. XI, p. 145–153. Before his death, Abu Bakr called Uthman to write his will in which he declared Umar his successor. In his will he instructed Umar to continue the conquests on and fronts.
Umar was a gifted orator, and he used his ability to improve his reputation among the people. Modern Islamic political thought, Hamid Enayat, p. 6.
Muhammad Husayn Haykal wrote that Umar's stress was on the well-being of the poor and underprivileged.Haykal, 1944, Chapter 5, p. 130. In addition to this, Umar, in order to improve his reputation and relation with the Banu Hashim, the tribe of Ali, delivered to the latter his disputed estates in Khayber. He followed Abu Bakr's decision over the disputed land of Fidak, continuing to treat it as state property.
In the Ridda wars, thousands of prisoners from rebel and apostate tribes were taken away as slaves during the expeditions. Umar ordered a general amnesty for the prisoners and their immediate emancipation.Haykal, 1944, Chapter 5, p. 135. This made Umar quite popular among the Bedouin people. With the necessary public support on his side, Umar took the bold decision of recalling Khalid ibn Walid from supreme command on the Byzantine front.Haykal, 1944, Chapter 5, p. 140.
In some districts there were separate military officers, though the Wali was, in most cases, the Commander-in-chief of the army quartered in the province.
Every appointment was made in writing. At the time of appointment an instrument of instructions was issued with a view to regulating the Wali's conduct. On assuming office, the Wali was required to assemble the people in the main mosque, and read the instrument of instructions before them. The Cambridge History of Islam, ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis, Cambridge, 1970
Umar's general instructions to his officers were:
Various other strict codes of conduct were to be obeyed by the governors and state officials. The principal officers were required to travel to Mecca on the occasion of the Hajj, during which people were free to present any complaint against them. In order to minimize the chances of corruption, Umar made it a point to pay high salaries to the staff. Provincial governors received as much as five to seven thousand dirham annually besides their shares of the spoils of war (if they were also the commander in chief of the army of their sector).
Under Umar, the empire was divided into the following provinces:
Umar was first to establish a special department for the investigation of complaints against the officers of the State. This department acted as the Administrative court, where the legal proceedings were personally led by Umar. Commanding right and forbidding wrong in Islamic thought, M. A. Cook, p. 79
The department was under the charge of Muhammad ibn Maslamah, one of Umar's most trusted men. In important cases, Muhammad ibn Maslamah was deputed by Umar to proceed to the spot, investigate the charge and take action. Sometimes an Inquiry Commission was constituted to investigate the charge. On occasion, the officers against whom complaints were received were summoned to Medina and charged in Umar's administrative court.
Umar was known for this intelligence service through which he made his officials accountable.
This service was also said to have inspired fear in his subjects.Umar was a pioneer in some affairs:
Another important aspect of Umar's rule was that he forbade any of his governors and agents from engaging in any sort of business dealings whilst in a position of power. An agent of Umar by the name of Al Harith ibn K'ab ibn Wahb was once found to have extra money beyond his salary and Umar enquired about his wealth. Al Harith replied that he had some money and he engaged in trade with it. Umar said: By Allah, we did not send you to engage in trade! and he took from him the profits he had made.
Umar also ordered the expulsion to Syria and Iraq of the Christian and Jewish communities of Najran and Khaybar. He also permitted Jewish families to resettle in Jerusalem, which had previously been barred from all Jews.Simha Assaf, Meqorot u-Meḥqarim be-Toldot Yisrael, Jerusalem 1946, pp. 20–21 (Hebrew and Judeo-Arabic) He issued orders that these Christians and Jews should be treated well and allotted them the equivalent amount of land in their new settlements. Umar also forbade non-Muslims from residing in the Hejaz for longer than three days.Giorgio Levi Della Vida and Michael Bonner, Encyclopaedia of Islam. He was first to establish the army as a state department.
In 641, he established Bayt al-mal, a financial institution and started annual allowances for the Muslims. As a leader, Umar was known for his simple, austere lifestyle. Rather than adopt the pomp and display affected by the rulers of the time, he continued to live much as he had when Muslims were poor and persecuted. In 638, his fourth year as caliph and the seventeenth year since the Hijra year, he decreed that the Islamic calendar should be counted from the year of the Hijra of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina.
"Umar ordered Gentiles and a group of Jews to sweep the area of the Temple Mount. Umar oversaw the work. The Jews who had come sent letters to the rest of the Jews in Palestine and informed them that Umar had permitted resettlement of Jerusalem by Jews. Umar, after some consultation, permitted seventy Jewish households to return. They returned to live in the southern part of the city, i.e., the Market of the Jews. (Their aim was to be near the water of Siloam and the Temple Mount and its gates). Then the Commander Umar granted them this request. The seventy families moved to Jerusalem from Tiberias and the area around it with their wives and children".
It is also reported in the name of the Alexandrian Bishop Eutychius (932–940) that the rock known as the Temple Mount had been a place of ruins as far back as the time of the Empress Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, who built churches in Jerusalem. "The Byzantines" he said, "had deliberately left the ancient site of the Temple as it was and had even thrown rubbish on it so that a great heap of rubble formed". It was only when Umar marched into Jerusalem with an army that he asked Ka'ab al-Ahbar, who was Jewish before he converted to Islam, "Where do you advise me to build a place of worship?" Ka'ab indicated the Temple Rock, now a gigantic heap of ruins from the temple of Jupiter. The History of al-Tabari, vol. XII, Albany, SUNY Press, 2007, pp. 194–195 The Jews, Ka'ab explained, had briefly won back their old capital a quarter of a century before (when Persians overran Syria and Palestine), but they had not had time to clear the site of the Temple, for the Rums (Byzantines) had recaptured the city. It was then that Umar ordered the rubbish on the Ṣakhra (rock) to be removed by the Nabataeans, and after three showers of heavy rain had cleansed the Rock, he instituted prayers there. To this day, the place is known as ḳubbat es ṣakhra, the Dome of the Rock.
According to lexicographer David ben Abraham al-Fasi (died before 1026), the Muslim conquest of Palestine brought relief to the country's Jewish citizens, who had previously been barred by the Byzantines from praying on the Temple Mount.
Later, Abu Ubaidah paid a personal visit to Medina and acted as an officer of disaster management, which was headed personally by Umar. For internally displaced people, Umar hosted a dinner every night at Medina, which according to one estimate, had attendance of more than a hundred thousand people.Haykal, 1944, Chapter 22.
According to some historical accounts, Abu Lu'lu'a was a Zoroastrian from Nahavand (Iran), though other reports describe him as a Christian.. Modern authors also take different views: merely state that he was a Christian slave, whereas finds the sources claiming he was Christian unreliable. mention that according to the , an anonymous work written c. 1126, Abu Lu'lu'a came from Fin, a village near Kashan. A highly skilled joiner and blacksmith,. Abu Lu'lu'a was probably taken captive by his master al-Mughira in the Battle of Nahavand (642) and subsequently brought to Arabia, where he may also have converted to Islam.This is the view of . Other historical sources report that he was rather taken captive by al-Mughira in the Battle of al-Qadisiyya (636), or that he was sold to al-Mughira by Hurmuzān, an ex-Sassanid military officer who had been working for Umar as an adviser after his own capture by the Muslims.See the sources cited by (cf. also p. 112). Although Medina was generally off-limits to the (non-Arabs) under Umar's reign, Abu Lu'lu'a was exceptionally allowed to enter the capital of the early caliphate, being sent there by al-Mughira to serve the caliph.; cf. .
When al-Mughira forced Abu Lu'lu'a to pay a tax of two a day,Other sources speak of three dirhams a month; see . Abu Lu'lu'a turned to Umar to protest this tax. However, Umar refused to lift the tax, thus provoking Abu Lu'lu'a's rage.; . As pointed out by Pellat 2011, other accounts rather maintain that Abu Lu'lu'a's was angry about the caliph's raising a tax on his master al-Mughira. Although this is the reason given by most historical accounts for Abu Lu'lu'a's assassination of Umar,. Umar's biased policies against non-Arab captives may also have played a prominent role.This is the hypothesis of . One day when Umar was leading the congregational prayer in the mosque of Medina, Abu Lu'lu'a stabbed him with a double-bladed dagger. describes the dagger as "unique", having "two pointed sharp edges, with a handle in the middle". There are different versions of how this happened: according to one version, he also killed Kulayb ibn al-Bukayr al-Laythi who was behind Umar, Cf. . See also 216. while in another version, he stabbed thirteen people who tried to restrain him.. According to some accounts, the caliph died on the day of the stabbing (Wednesday of the , or according to the Julian calendar, or according to the Gregorian calendar), while other accounts maintain that he survived three more days.; .
Some historical sources report that Abu Lu'lu'a was taken prisoner and executed for his assassination of Umar, while other sources claim that he committed suicide. After Abu Lu'lu'a's death, his daughter was killed by Ubayd Allah ibn Umar, one of Umar's sons. Acting upon the claim of one man (either Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf or Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr) that they had been seen conspiring with Abu Lu'lu'a while he was holding the double-bladed dagger, Ubayd Allah also killed Hurmuzān (Umar's Persian military adviser), and Jufayna, a Christian man from al-Hira (Iraq) who had been taken to Medina to serve as a private tutor to a family in Medina. (cf. p. 404, where Madelung refers to him as "Jufayna al-Naṣrānī"). After Ubayd Allah was detained for these murders, he threatened to kill all foreign captives residing in Medina, as well as some others. Although Ubayd Allah may have been encouraged by his sister Hafsa bint Umar to avenge their father's death, his murder of Hurmuzān and Jufayna was likely the result of a mental breakdown rather than of a true conspiracy. It was regarded by his peers as a crime rather than as a legitimate act of retaliation..
In early 20th-century scholarship it was sometimes supposed that Abu Lu'lu'a had really been an instrument in the hands of a conspiracy, though not a conspiracy led by Hurmuzān, but rather one led by Ali, al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, and Talha ibn Ubayd Allah. These men, who according to the historical sources were appointed by Umar himself as members of the council who would elect the next caliph, were thought by scholars to have conspired to overthrow Umar's reign and to put Ali in his place., as reported by . This hypothesis, however, is rejected by more recent scholars.; ; . Nevertheless, while Ubayd Allah was subsequently acquitted of his crimes by Umar's successor Uthman (r. 644–656), who considered the execution of Ubayd Allah an excessive measure in view of his father's recent assassination, Ali, among others, did protest against this and vowed to apply the regular punishment for murder if he were ever to be caliph..
Umar was buried at the Green Dome in al-Masjid al-Nabawi alongside Muhammad and the caliph Abu Bakr, by the permission of Aisha given to his son Abdullah ibn Umar on Umar's request.
All six are among the ten to whom Paradise was promised according to Sunnis. The only one out of the "famous ten" left out of the committee who was still alive at the time was Saeed ibn Zaid, the cousin and brother-in-law of Umar. He was excluded on the basis of being related by blood and of the same tribe as Umar. Umar had a policy of not appointing anyone related to him to a position of authority even if they were qualified by his standards.
Umar appointed a band of fifty armed soldiers to protect the house where the meeting was proceeding. Until the appointment of the next caliph, Umar appointed a notable Sahaba and mawla, Suhayb ar-Rumi ( Suhayb the Roman), as a deputy or caretaker caliph to run state affairs.Efendioğlu, Mehmet(2009), TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Volume 37, p. 476. While the meeting for selection of a caliph was proceeding, Abdulrehman ibn Abu Bakr and Abdur Rahman bin Awf revealed that they saw the dagger used by Abu Lu'lu'a, the assassin of Umar. A night before Umar's assassination, reported Abdur Rahman bin Awf, he saw Hurmuzan, Jafina and Abu Lu'lu'a, while they were suspiciously discussing something. Surprised by his presence, the dagger fell; it was the same two-sided dagger used in the assassination. Abdulrehman ibn Abu Bakr, son of the late caliph Abu Bakr, confirmed that a few days before Umar's assassination, he saw this dagger in Hurmuzan's possession. After this revelation, it seemed clear that it had been planned by the Persians residing in Medina. Infuriated by this, Umar's younger son Ubayd Allah ibn Umar sought to kill all the Persians in Medina. He killed Hurmuzan, Jafinah, and the daughter of Umar's assassin Abu Lu'lu'a, who is believed to have been a Muslim. Ubayd Allah was intercepted by the people of Medina, who prevented him from continuing the massacre. Amr ibn al-Aas is said to have intercepted him and convinced him to hand over his sword. The murder of Jafinah enraged Saad ibn Abi Waqqas, his foster brother, and he assaulted Ubaidullah ibn Umar; again the companions intervened. When Umar was informed about the incident, he ordered Ubayd Allah imprisoned and that the next caliph should decide his fate.Haykal, 1944, Chapter "Death of Umar".
Umar died on 6 November 644; on 7 November Uthman succeeded him as caliph. After prolonged negotiations, the tribunal decided to give blood money to the victims, and released Umar's son Ubaidullah on the ground that, after the tragedy of Umar's assassination, people would be further infuriated by the execution of his son the very next day.
The early Muslim historians Ibn Saad and al-Hakim mention that Abu Miriam Zir, a native of Kufa, described Umar as being "advanced in years, bald, of a tawny colour – a left handed man, tall and towering above the people". Umar's eldest son Abdullah described his father as "a man of fair complexion, a ruddy tint prevailing, tall, bald and grey".Ibn Sa'd, Kitāb al-Ṭabaqāt al-Kabīr, vol. 3, p. 301,قال: أخبرنا محمد بن عمر قال: أخبرنا شُعيب بن طلحة عن أبيه عن القاسم بن محمّد قال: سمعتُ ابن عمر يصف عمر يقول رجل أبيض تعْلُوه حُمْرَةٌ، طُوال، أصلع، أشيب. Historian Salima bin al-Akwa'a said that "Umar was ambidextrous, he could use both his hands equally well". On the authority of Abu Raja al-U'taridi, Ibn Asakir records that "Umar was a man tall, stout, very bald, very ruddy with scanty hair on the cheeks, his moustaches large, and the ends thereof reddish". In addition, on the authority of Amir bin Rabi'ah, Ibn Sa'ad records that "I saw Umar a white man, pale. Prevailing ruddiness, tall and bald".Ibn Sa'd, Kitāb al-Ṭabaqāt al-Kabīr, vol. 3, p. 301, أخبرنا محمد بن عمر قال: أخبرنا عمر بن عمران بن عبد الله بن عبد الرحمن بن أبي بكر عن عاصم بن عبيد الله عن عبد الله بن عامر بن ربيعة قال: رأيتُ عمر رجلًا أبيض، أمْهَق. تعلوه حمرة، طُوالًا، أصلع.
Umar never appointed governors for more than two years, for they might amass too much local power. He dismissed his most successful general, Khalid ibn Walid, because he wanted people to know that it is Allah who grants victory, and to counter the cult of personality that had built up around Khalid, for the sake of the Muslim faith.
He would patrol the streets of Medina with a whip in his hand, ready to punish any offenders he might come across. It is said that Umar's whip was feared more than the sword of another man. But with all of this, he was also known for being kindhearted, answering the needs of the fatherless and widows.
Umar's swift imposition of justice against his governors for misdeeds made even powerful governors such as Muawiyah scared of him. Ali ibn Abu Talib, during the later rule of Uthman ibn Affan, wanted Uthman to be more strict with his governors, saying, "I adjure you by God, do you know that Mu'awiyah was more afraid of Umar than was Umar's own servant Yarfa?"
Under Umar's rule, in order to promote strict discipline, Arab soldiers were settled outside of cities, between the desert and cultivated lands in special garrison towns known as "amsar". Known examples of such settlements are Basra and Kufa in Iraq and Fustat south of what would later become Cairo. His soldiers were forbidden to own land outside of Arabia. There were restrictions on their right to seize buildings and other immovable things usually thought of as prizes of war. Movable spoils were shared with the people of the umma, regardless of their social stratum.
A modern researcher writes about this:Mohtsham, Saeed M., Vision and Visionary Leadership – An Islamic Perspective
In The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon refers to Umar in the following terms:
His rule was one of the few moments in the history of Islam where Muslims were united as a single community. Abd Allah ibn Mas'ud would often weep whenever the subject of Umar was brought up. He said: "Umar was a fortress of Islam. People would enter Islam and not leave. When he died, the fortress was breached and now people are going out of Islam". Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah before Umar died famously said: "If Umar dies, Islam would be weakened". People asked him why and his reply was "You will see what I am speaking about if you survive".
His greatest achievement from a religious perspective was the compilation of the Qur'an. This had not been done during the time of Muhammad. However, during the Battle of Yamama, a great number of the memorisers of the Quran perished in the battle. On the advice of Umar, Abu Bakr tasked Zayd ibn Thabit with the momentous task of compiling the Quran into a single Book.
The Farooqui dynasty which ruled the Khandesh region in north of Maharashtra, India, from 14th century until 16th century, has claimed their descent from Umar's lineage. Alt URL
One strategic success was his sundering of the Byzantine-Sassanid alliance in 636, when Emperors Heraclius and Yazdegerd III allied against their common enemy. He was lucky in that the Persian Emperor Yazdegerd III couldn't synchronise with Heraclius as planned. Umar fully availed himself of the opportunity by inducing the Byzantines to act prematurely. This was contrary to the orders of Emperor Heraclius, who presumably wanted a coordinated attack along with the Persians. Umar did this by sending reinforcements to the Roman front in the Battle of Yarmouk, with instructions that they should appear in the form of small bands, one after the other, giving the impression of a continuous stream of reinforcements that finally lured the Byzantines to an untimely battle. On the other hand, Yazdegerd III was engaged in negotiations that further gave Umar time to transfer his troops from Syria to Iraq. These troops proved decisive in the Battle of Qadisiyyah.
His strategy resulted in a Muslim victory at the Second Battle of Emesa in 638, where the pro-Byzantine Christian Arabs of Jazira, aided by the Byzantine Emperor, made an unexpected flanking movement and laid siege to Homs.
Umar issued an order to invade the very homeland of the Christian Arab forces besieging Emesa, the Jazira. A three-pronged attack against Jazira was launched from Iraq. To further pressure the Christian Arab armies, Umar instructed Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, commander of Muslim forces in Iraq, to send reinforcements to Emesa. Umar himself led reinforcements there from Medina. Under this unprecedented pressure, the Christian Arabs retreated from Emesa before Muslim reinforcements could arrive. The Muslims annexed Mesopotamia and parts of Byzantine Armenia.
After the Battle of Nahavand, Umar launched a full-scale invasion of the Sassanid Persian Empire. The invasion was a series of well-coordinated multi-pronged attacks designed to isolate and destroy their targets. Umar launched the invasion by attacking the very heart of Persia, aiming to isolate Azerbaijan and eastern Persia. This was immediately followed by simultaneous attacks on Azerbaijan and Fars. Next, Sistan and Kerman province were captured, thus isolating the stronghold of Persia, the Khurasan. The final expedition was launched against Khurasan, where, after the Battle of Oxus River, the Persian empire ceased to exist, and Yazdegerd III fled to Central Asia.
Another Shia sect, the Zaydism followers of Zayd ibn Ali, generally has two views about that. Some branches, such as Jarudiyya (Sarhubiyya), don't accept Umar and Abu Bakr as legitimate caliphs. For instance, Jarudiyya believes that Muhammad appointed Ali and believes that the denial of the Imamate of Ali after Muhammad's passing would lead to infidelity and deviation from the right path. The other view accepts Umar and Abu Bakr as legitimate caliphs, albeit inferior to Ali.
According to al-Tabari (and Ibn A'tham), when asked about Abu Bakr and Umar, Zayd ibn Ali replied: "I have not heard anyone in my family renouncing them both nor saying anything but good about them ... when they were entrusted with government they behaved justly with the people and acted according to the Qur'an and the Sunnah". The waning of the Umayyad caliphate by Tabarī, Carole Hillenbrand, 1989, pp. 37–38 The Encyclopedia of Religion, Vol. 16, Mircea Eliade, Charles J. Adams, Macmillan, 1987, p. 243, "They were called "Rafida by the followers of Zayd"
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